The elimination of foreign genes or characteristics from a population "contaminated" by another breed is possible only by selection of living herds or flocks and therefore this problem belongs also the in situ preservation.

If an ancient breed has been influenced by another breed, preservation is possible in three ways:

• by cryogenic methods - but this only postpones the problem of coping with the "contamination";
• by maintenance of the present gene structure in a gene pool. This is possible, but the value of such a population is not so high because of the influence from other, often highly producing, breeds (but it is a method of preserving genes);
• by special selection, which can be called "purification" in this case.

To guarantee the preservation of such a population we should be convinced that it does not carry more than 20 per cent of foreign blood (Alderson, 1981). However, the precise determination of this percentage may be very difficult. If the population in question has valuable traits, purification can result in a good population which has merit enough to be preserved. When the foreign influence is too great, a new breed name should be given in order to be authentic.

Thus, the purification is essentially a selection procedure. However, the culling of animals, carriers of foreign genes, is very dangerous when the population size is small. Therefore, with the population in critical status the first step is to increase the population size. Selection is then carried out by culling the animals with markings or characters of another breed or breeds. During this selection an attempt should be made not to decrease the genetic variability in other traits and to maintain the value of the population in question. The selection of males should be emphasized.

Heritage animals were bred over time to develop traits that made them particularly well-adapted to local environmental conditions. Heritage breeds are generally better adapted to withstand disease and survive in harsh environmental conditions, and their bodies can be better suited to living on pasture.

These livestock breeds also serve as an important genetic resource, and when heritage breeds become extinct, their unique genes are lost forever and can't be used to breed new traits into existing livestock breeds. Therefore, by raising heritage livestock breeds, sustainable farmers not only maintain variety within our livestock populations, they also help to preserve valuable traits within the species so that future breeds can endure harsh conditions.

Pedigree study and genetic research will be a new idea for many breeders. We all are used to focusing on conformation evaluation, an important element in choosing breeding stock. Many breed associations place a heavy emphasis on phenotype (conformation), such as Warmblood societies, and they have been successful with this method. Pedigree is also considered, but usually only to the 3rd generation.

As a pedigree specialist notes, the value of the phenotype of the horse is a powerful indicator of which part of the pedigree the horse is throwing to. But breeders should not be seduced into thinking that conformation is all that matters. Phenotype is only a portion of the genetic blueprint the horse carries, and for breeders it is important for their success to understand the full genetic package, for your horse, or the mate you choose, might not breed "true to type".

Every time you breed a horse you get a mix of the genetics - it is very much like a kaleidoscope, always the same pieces of colored glass but a different picture each time you rotate the view. If you could lessen the number of colors of glass to just a few, then when you turned the tube you would find the images much more consistent. So it is also with genetics, pre-potency is the result of focusing and increasing the input of desired superior genes. Not just close up, but real consistency in offspring comes when the far reaches are involved also.

Stallions are often thought to be the most influential part of the stallion-mare mating equation. If they consistently throw successful foals, they quickly develop national and international reputations and earn high stud fees. Stallions also are the ones in the spotlight: in breeding issues of equine magazines, in advertisements for breeding farms and in every hopeful trainer's and competitor's heart.

Genetically, the mare is responsible for at least 50 percent of the foal. Some breeders even argue by observation that the dam affects the offspring at a rate of 60 percent or more. In the majority of cases, breeding experts will tell you the mare's characteristics override the stallion's.

A rule of thumb in the breeding world is that you can breed a mediocre stallion to a great mare and still have a nice foal. But breed a great stallion to an undesirable mare? The results will be disastrous. Temperament, conformation and talent are each critically tied to the mare's genetic structure, a structure she passes from generation to generation. Therefore, understanding the mare's crucial role in the breeding process is an undeniably essential part of the breeding equation.

Breeders often make the mistake of thinking that mares are not as important as stallions, and that is not true.

The mares are the genetic basis of the breeding equation. The dam lines are the origin of all breeding products and are passed consistently through all generations.

It is easier to switch to a different stallion if a certain combination of mare and stallion does not produce a good foal. If you have a mare with a negative trait, you can try to select the right stallion to override that trait, but that approach will seldom succeed completely. Mares pass on everything - not only their appearance, health, character, temperament and movement, but little things such as ticklishness, ear shyness and chewing on the reins. Every little thing moves from generation to generation.

A very good mare can be bred to a not-so-good stallion and she will still produce a useable product. However, when a very good stallion is bred to a not-so-good mare, it is very rare to get a nice foal. A foal doesn't just inherit physical traits from the mare. In the formative first months after birth, the foal takes on many characteristics of the mare's behavior. The foal's personality will often become identical to the mare's. Therefore, it is dangerous for a breeder to overlook the mare's powerful influence on her baby.

The mare isn't the only one who passes on her qualities. "Her lineage-usually up to the sixth generation-is passed on as well. Just as important is studying the mare's progeny to make sure she's passing along her positive traits.

The mare also should produce above-average progeny from different stallions. Breeders also take into account a mare's physical characteristics and movement when deciding whether or not to breed her. A mare also has to have a lovely eye, and three good gaits. Rideability and temperament are critical, too. Character and the desire to work is very important. If you have a foal that's not the best foal, but he likes work, he is still useful for everyone.

The mare should have a sociable and friendly character and have a tremendous personality. In addition, she needs a mothering instinct.

Last, but far from least, is a mare's general health and reproductive ability. People often forget the importance of fertility. If you have a perfect mare that is very difficult to get in foal, that is not good. If a mare has stillborn foals for two or three years, genetically deformed foals or foals with severe conformation faults, she should not be bred again.

But sometimes it is difficult to tell if the foal's problems are from the mare or from the stallion.

Nature can be wrong and sometimes makes mistakes, so it is important to try more than once if you do encounter a problem, because it is not likely to happen again.

Remember, however, that not all problems show up immediately. Most exterior problems and defects are very often inheritable genetically and these traits often wait until the second generation to show up.

At the very least, a breeder should re-evaluate his mares every year to make sure they still meet the current criteria of good foaling mares. The most important thing for a breeder is to have enough self-criticism to be able to honestly judge the quality of his broodmares. Don't worry about only having a few mares. If your mares are high quality, it is not a problem to produce good offspring. One should only breed the best mares and sell the ones that have not proven to be good enough.

A horse's pedigree is a portion of its family tree. In its simplest form, it identifies a horse's sire and dam, grandsires and granddams, great-grandsires and great-granddams, and so forth, extending back as many generations as the ancestors can be traced.

Every creature is influenced in virtually every respect by its genetic makeup. Every physical trait, from coat color to hoof quality, is governed by a horse's genes. To varying degrees, a horse's genetics also impact its movement, aptitude for a given discipline, disposition, and mental attributes.

For a horse to have a specific trait, such as a blue eye, it has to have the genetic programming for that characteristic in its background, either expressed or carried by one or more horses in its pedigree. However, a horse with a blue eye may not necessarily sire or give birth to a foal with a blue eye, or any other specific trait, due to the fact that some traits are recessive and some are dominant.

From basic biology, we know that genes are carried on chromosomes. In any particular mating, there are literally billions of ways in which the chromosomes (and thus, the genes) of the sire and dam may combine to produce the wonderful creation that is a foal.

For this reason, predicting with certainty the characteristics of a foal is no easy task. In fact, it is impossible! So is breeding just a "crap-shoot"? Is an excellent foal the result of "dumb luck"?

Not at all. Through careful research of pedigrees, the conscientious breeder can have greater certainty in the outcome of a given mating, and the well-informed owner will have information about the likely usefulness of a particular horse for a given discipline.

Some horses have the ability to consistently reproduce themselves in breeding, with their offspring bearing close resemblance to them. These horses are said to "stamp" their foals. They are considered "prepotent" for some, or many, characteristics. These characteristics may be positive, as in the case of a horse which consistently produces straight and strong legs. However, the characteristics may be unfavorable, as when a horse consistently passes on to its get a weak back.

Why are some horses prepotent and some not? This may be a fluke of nature or the product of human intervention.

Some bloodlines are known for producing certain traits, such as the innate jumping ability seen in the Trakehner bloodlines of Donauwind, Hartung, and to a degree, Flaneur.

Some bloodlines are known for traits expressed only in the female line. One example of this is the consistent ability of the daughters of Impuls and Ibikus to produce foals of exceptional quality. Of course, whenever there is a generalization made about the characteristics of a bloodline, there will be some horses of that line which do not breed true. Conversely, there can always be a standout from bloodlines which do not have any recognized attributes.

Long ago, breeders discovered that breeding a stallion and mare which are related to each other can often cause the resultant horse to be "prepotent." While this sort of intensive mating to concentrate a bloodline can produce an outstanding animal, it can also produce one which is inferior. The breeder undertaking such a program must diligently assess the outcome of those matings, and often the progeny of the resulting foal, and ruthlessly cull from the program individuals which do not measure up to the desired standard.

Firstly, consider this: The Thoroughbred as a breed originated from just three stallions. The Godolphin Arabian, the Byerly Turk and the Darley Arabian*. In fact, recent research found that, in 95% of modern Thoroughbred racehorses, the Y-chromosome can be traced back to this single stallion*!

Possibly the most important tool a horse breeder has at their disposal are the pedigrees of their breeding stock. After everything else has been considered (from conformation to coat colour and absolutely everything else possible in between!) - the intelligent and competent use of a pedigree is what separates a skilled horse breeder (i.e. a breeder with an ‘eye’ for a horse) and someone who simply breeds hoping the result will be successful.

The most respected and successful breeders, amongst others, throughout time have employed line breeding of their finest animals as their key tool to create equine masterpieces

The purpose and point of line breeding is simple: to produce horses who can pass on their [superior] traits i.e. homozygosity. One line breeds in order to set the desired characteristics by increasing homozygosity, which allows a horse to pass on their traits generation after generation. Line breeding sets the ‘type’ (i.e. phenotype) and genetic material (i.e. genotype) thereby allowing the horses to reproduce themselves accurately and reliably. This entrenches (by doubling up or tripling up - depending upon the extent of the line breeding) the desirable traits when one is developing a breed or a type for a specific purpose.

This should only be practiced with superior quality animals, with no conformational defects or heritable abnormalities and that, in the case of a sire, he is prepotent and his offspring bear all his good attributes. It goes without saying that one uses both the conformation of the said animals as well as the pedigree when making breeding decisions. It is not sufficient to go simply by pedigree alone, or by phenotype alone. The two are inseparable.

Each parent provides 50% of the genetic make-up to a foal.

The following charts give you the percentage of genetic material coming from each horse in that generation. An old "saying" indicates that a horse must carry at least 18% of a certain individual in the pedigree to see any potential real physical or mental influence from that ancestor.

When a common ancestor appears, you add together each percentage level to determine the total overall influence. [Shown in charts 2 and 3]

Chart 1 – percentages of genetic influence from each generation: for example: this horse "YOR High Noon" is 25% High Sign, 50% SW Red Velvet.

Chart 2 below – multiple common ancestors: add together each common ancestor to get the total genetic influence coming from that horse. Each common ancestor shown is color coded.

Examples: The paternal great grandfather is also the maternal great-great grandfather "High Sign". Add together 12.5% and 6.25% = 18.75% influence of "High Sign" in this horse YOR Fine Line.

The paternal grand dam "SW Red Velvet" is also the maternal great grand dam. Add together 25% and 12.5% = 37.5% influence of "SW Red Velvet" in this horse.

Chart 3 - An example of a line bred KING horse is given below:

Each time King is represented in the pedigree is highlighted in blue. Adding only the generations shown in this pedigree below we would add 12.5% two times and 3.125% three times to give a total of 34.375% King blood in this horse. (There may be additional incidences of King in further generations that are not shown in the six generation pedigree given, which would increase the percent of King in the horse.)

Deworming your horse
For more up to date information on controlling intestinal parasites (worms) that may be affecting your horses go to www.thehorse.com/Videos.aspx?tab=webinar. Watch the webinar DEWORMING YOUR HORSE the latest information on deworming strategies and how you can help prevent resistance to dewormers by Dr Craig Reinemeyer and Dr Wendy Vaala.

New Deworming Protocol

The new deworming protocol is based on the fact that all horses in a group or herd will fall into 3 categories light, medium, and heavy egg shedders. The heavy shedders are responsible for 80% of the eggs that hatch into larva that develop into infective stages in a pasture. It is suggested that horses shedding 200 eggs/gram or less are light shedders. Horses that are shedding 200 eggs/ gram – 800 eggs/gram are medium shedders. Horses shedding over 800 eggs/gram are considered heavy shedders. Light shedders should be dewormed 2 times a year, medium shedders should be dewormed 3 times a year, and heavy shedders should be dewormed 4 times a year. This protocol was suggested by the equine parasitologists that spoke at the Symposium on Equine Parasite Resistance.

The aim of this protocol is to slow down the progress of resistance by leaving some sensitive worms to mate with the resistant worms causing their offspring to remain sensitive to the dewormers that are available. Since there are no new dewormers on the horizon in the near future it is important to delay the development of more resistant as long as possible. Certainly fecal egg counts are critical to this deworming protocol.

2009 Equine Parasite Symposium
I just returned from Lexington Kentucky where I attended the 2009 Equine Parasite Symposium at the Gluck Equine Research Center on the campus of the University of Kentucky. The main topic at this meeting was the developing resistance of parasites to the dewormers that are available including ivermectin. The two main concerns of the parasitologists attending the meeting were.

1. If something is not done to slow the rate of this developing resistance the parasite problem in horses could become critical because there are no new deworming medications ready for use in the horse.

2. There is a need to change the deworming practices and indentify the areas where resistance to these medications exists. This can be done by developing a combination of dewormers and other husbandry practices to protect horses from parasites.

Doing stool samples before deworming can identify which worms are present so the proper dewormer combination can be used and only those horses that need to be dewormed will be dewormed. By following this plan it is felt the rate of developing resistance can be slowed. By doing a stool sample again after deworming can also help to identify where resistance to dewormers may already exist.

[Ed Note: Mrs. John Mountain, past president of the WPSCS  and a moving force in the breed today, is breeder of the Twyford ponies, daughter of the late breeder of the Clan ponies, and editor of the Society’s yearly journal from which the accompanying photos come.]

Anyone appointed to a Judges’ Panel should be thoroughly familiar with the breed standard and description laid down by the relevant Society. There is not space to print the entire descriptions of the Welsh Breeds here, so I shall try to pick out those points which are particularly characteristic of them.

The most important point in these descriptions is that there is a marked similarity in the requirements for all Sections, and if you study a really good example of each sort lined up together this is noticeable. It shines through as their "Welsh-ness" showing their common ancestry, and it is something that should never be allowed to disappear.

When judging a breed, conformation and correctness of limb and movement, of course, play quite a large part in one’s final decision. But it is the marrying of these things with Breed Character and Type that is often the most difficult part. Every judge has his personal ideal in his mind. Probably none, or certainly very few, go about their judging in exactly the same way. Quite often the final placings are the same, or very nearly so.

(Section ‘A’ in the Stud Bood, not exceeding 12 h.)

The standard seen nowadays is very high, with a large number of entries at most shows. The head should be as near to the official description as possible, without a good head and bold eye the pony is not a Welsh Mountain Pony at all. The ear must be small, shapely and fine. I find some of the very small ones are too wide open and rounded, often set rather wide apart. These never seem to be really pricked and so take away character and alertness from the pony’s expression.

The set of head on the neck is very important. This is one of the things that a Welsh Mountain Pony needs to give it that typical head carriage and balance that is one of its most beautiful points. Shoulders strong and well laid back to keep a saddle in the right place. Back well coupled, strong with a good length of quarter. Then that very great characteristic of a Welsh Mountain Pony – a tail set well up and gaily carried.

Deep through the girth, on short, strong limbs with good feet. Many young ponies take time to let down and deepen, particularly if they have grown a lot. One makes allowances for this, but an adult must have depth. Bone, I think, is very important, because it is such a characteristic of the breed. It must be of adequate quantity – hard an flat with short cannon bones. A well-formed knee and a well made, clean hock, nice and low to the ground are of great importance, as are feet of good size and shape that will stand up to some work.

Knees Up" or "Daisy Cutting" movement? Neither!

This leads us to movement. I am often asked whether the "knees up" variety or the "daisly cutting" sort are correct for the Welsh Mountain Pony. My answer is neither! The action should be free and active. In front the leg should come up and then out from the shoulder. Behind, the hocks should really work balancing the pony and propelling it forward. I dislike an animal whose knee comes up but whose foot never gets out farther than its knee, as much as those whose forefeet come forward from underneath, just above the ground. Both sorts usually leave their hind legs behind them too, which makes for an ugly and unbalanced picture. So often too, when one stands behind the pony and watches it move away the hocks do not flex enough and hind feet turn out. Movement sometimes can be improved by careful attention to feet and shoeing; and if anyone wants more "hackneyfied" action, or that exaggerated "straight out in front" sort, that is manmade!

My aim when judging a class of Welsh Mountain Ponies is to try to find first and foremost a pony which is typical of the breed, with that characteristic expression. There is no more beautiful pony in the world.

Much of what I have said regarding conformation applies equally to the other three types of Welsh. In discussing these I will confine myself more to the difficulties one has when judging them.

(Section ‘B’ in the Stud Book, not exceeding 13.2h)

 These have been much criticised in recent years for the diversity of type among them. I have every sympathy with breeders who aim to get them as near as possible to the height limit of 13.2h and of a type to compete in open Riding Pony classes. They are very marketable animals too. But, if one is going to judge a BREED class, the standard for that breed must be adhered to. With careful, selective breeding it should not be impossible to produce an animal of top class riding type, which still retains its Welsh characteristics. Do not forget that a top class 12.2 is almost as valuable as a 13.2, and Welsh blood has already proven itself in the 12.2 classes. With this in mind I often wonder why a Section ‘A’ stallion of real riding conformation is not more frequently used on some of the Section ‘B’ mares.

So, you stand in the middle of the ring and watch your Welsh Ponies enter. I must admit that my heart has often sunk at this moment, for many times they have been from 11.2 to 13.2h and of every type imaginable, from one that could be a rather stuffy Section ‘A; up to a 13.2h who, on looks, could be predominantly of Thoroughbred or Arab blood. When this happens I try very hard to first find those that most closely resemble the Stud Book description. Quite often there may be only one or two that do. Then one is left with the awful task of the other placings. Sometimes I have had to leave some very lovely ponies low down, putting far less valuable ponies above them, but this is a class for a breed so Welsh Ponies must be found. I must say as a breeder that this is only common sense. You must have your true to type Welsh Ponies as a breeding foundation. It is quite easy to get them finer and more glamorous, but very hard to put true type and substance back into them once it has been lost.

(Section ‘C’ in the Stud Book, not exceeding 13.2h)

This is the least well known of the Welsh breeds, and because of its scarcity is probably the hardest to judge as it is difficult to compare them when only very few are seen at most shows outside Wales. As their name suggests they have come through intermingling Cob blood with that of the ponies. The ideal Section ‘C’ is where the best of their ancestors has come out in the right places. The head should have adefinite pony look, and any sign of coarseness should be penalized. The whole impression should be of strength for its size, but movement should show the pony influence, again, with freedom and gaiety.

(Section ‘D’ in the Stud Book, no height limit.)

Many people think of the cob as a heavy, gallumping animal, rather like a war-horse. This is not so at all. A good cob is an animal of great quality with the balance and activity that is so noticeable in the Mountain Pony. They must have plenty of bone, the right sort too. The coat is fine and they should have a lot of presence. They should be compact and strong, and never common.

Probably the most usual points to criticize when judging them are a coarseness in head, and in limbs and feet. They should have bone like flint and feet to stand up to the work for which they have always been notable. Their heads should have a pony look.

In everything I have written above about judging I have assumed that straightness of movement is taken for granted. In Welsh Cob classes, particularly in Wales, one sees many yearlings shown with quite heavy shoes. Most of them move like a child wearing its father’s boots. For my own interest, I have followed the progress of some of these youngsters through the two and three-year-old classes in later years and, sadly, the majority of them end up throwing their feet about in all directions. Their joints suffer as well and by the time they are four many sets of limbs are showing great signs of wear. Man has a lot to answer for!

The Welsh Breeds are now enjoying tremendous popularity. We as breeders or judges of them have a great responsibility to ensure that there is no falling off from the high standard of the best animals.

So while the piebalds and skewbalds were not clearly excluded from all sections of the WPSC (UK) until 1950-51, they were clearly undesirable. The Foundation Stock program was still in use, and some outside blood was allowed in the WPCS Stud Books (UK). Perhaps the reason to add the terminology to accept any color except piebald and skewbald was to keep out "Gypsy blood", or perhaps it was to restrict the influence of the outside blood which had already been accepted. But the exclusion did not mark a change in sentiment. It was, rather, a reinforcement of the established custom.

Preservation of Domestic Animals

When preserving any domestic animal population, we must not be content with the maintenance of the names or the reputation of some groups of breeders, but require the preservation of genes and valuable traits (i.e. the original type, size, conformation, performance, resistance and adaptability of animals (Bodó, 1987a,b)) for the future of mankind.

The elimination of foreign genes or characteristics from a population "contaminated" by another breed is possible only by selection of living herds or flocks and therefore this problem belongs also the in situ preservation.

If an ancient breed has been influenced by another breed, preservation is possible in three ways:

• by cryogenic methods - but this only postpones the problem of coping with the "contamination";
• by maintenance of the present gene structure in a gene pool. This is possible, but the value of such a population is not so high because of the influence from other, often highly producing, breeds (but it is a method of preserving genes);
• by special selection, which can be called "purification" in this case.

To guarantee the preservation of such a population we should be convinced that it does not carry more than 20 per cent of foreign blood (Alderson, 1981). However, the precise determination of this percentage may be very difficult. If the population in question has valuable traits, purification can result in a good population which has merit enough to be preserved. When the foreign influence is too great, a new breed name should be given in order to be authentic.

Horsemen’s Laboratory

Equine Parasite Resistance...A Hot Topic

Equine parasite resistance is becoming a growing problem, with worms (including strongyles) becoming less sensitive to anthelmintics, the drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminths).It's a serious enough issue that several recent parasitology conferences made it a primary topic. How does it affect you and your deworming options? It depends on what you use, and how you deworm.

Basically, when a dewormer is given to a horse, it kills off the active adult worm population. However, some adults that weren't affected by that dose could survive, and their genes will be the ones passed on to the next generation. In the case of small strongyles (see Worm of the Month sidebar), there can even be larvae encysted in the horse's intestines that will erupt and mature to take the place of those adults that have died, often causing inflammation, diarrhea, and sometimes colic. Although this is a very simplistic explanation, it shows that frequent deworming to keep a horse totally parasite-free is not only unrealistic, it can be harmful. If that's the case, what do we do now?

John Byrd, DVM, founder of Horsemen's Laboratory (H-Lab), was recently interviewed for several publications (see links, below) on his views about equine parasite resistance. The type of fecal exams offered by H-Lab since the early 1990s are just the kind of assessments now suggested by equine parasitologists in the revised deworming protocols.

The new deworming recommendations include:

• Running fecal exams to determine individual horse parasite burdens, and types of worms that are present.
• Focusing on 'high shedding' horses that produce higher egg counts, and deworm them more frequently than low-shedders, to reduce the numbers of eggs in your environment.
• Use a dewormer suited to your parasite population, and don't leap to rotation as a panacea; rotating dewormers can mask what's actually going on.